Key moments in the history of press freedom in America — from the First Amendment and the Alien and Sedition Acts to landmark Supreme Court cases defining the limits of libel, censorship, and prior restraint.

1735

Rex vs. Zenger: The Foundation of the free press. John Peter Zenger printed The New York Weekly Journal, a newspaper that criticized and satirically mocked Royal Governor William Cosby. Zenger was charged with seditious libel and expected to be found guilty as the truth was no defense in English common law. Zenger’s lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, contrived a novel defense that Zenger printed the truth, so no libel had been committed and the jury had the duty to judge the law as well as the fact. The jury acquitted Zenger, setting the precedent that in America, the truth is a defense.

1791

The First Amendment makes freedom of the press a fundamental right.

The text of the First Amendment engraved on a stone wall, guaranteeing freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

1798

Alien and Sedition Acts: Federalists make it a crime to criticize the President or the U.S. Government in print and in speech.

1803

Jefferson is graphically depicted as a prairie dog stung by a Napoleon wasp to make him spew money for the Louisiana Territory.

Hand-colored political cartoon depicting a donkey-like creature vomiting coins while a caricatured man gestures with papers, satirizing political deception.

1804

1804 People vs. Croswell: Printing the truth is ruled to not be libel.

Front page of The Wasp newspaper by Robert Rusticoat, Esquire, featuring commentary on Jefferson and Callender.

1809

Jefferson was often criticized in partisan newspapers. Here he is depicted as being robbed by Napoleon and King George III of England.

Hand-colored satirical cartoon showing three caricatured figures, including one resembling Thomas Jefferson, gesturing dramatically with speech bubbles.

1898

Destruction of the African American owned Wilmington, North Carolina Daily Record by white supremacists.

Black-and-white photograph of a large group of armed men and boys standing before a wooden building with a partially burned upper floor.

1901

William Monroe Trotter founds The Guardian newspaper in Boston.

Black-and-white portrait photograph of William Monroe Trotter, with a mustache, wearing a suit and tie.

1912

Frederick Madison Roberts founds the New Age newspaper in Los Angeles, advocating for civil rights.

Black-and-white photograph of Frederick Madison Roberts in a suit seated at a desk with an open book and papers, in a legislative chamber.

1931

Near vs. Minnesota: Prior restraint of publications forbidden by the 14th Amendment.

Front page of The Saturday Press newspaper, Minneapolis, dated October 15, 1927, headlined "A Direct Challenge to Police Chief Brunskill."

1964

New York Times vs. Sullivan: Printing the truth is an absolute defense in civil lawsuits and public officials must prove actual malice for libel to occur.

Full-page newspaper advertisement headlined "Heed Their Rising Voices," soliciting support for the Civil Rights Movement in the South.

Garrison vs. Louisiana: The New York Times vs. Sullivan decision upholding press freedoms applies in criminal as well as civil lawsuits.

Black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit speaking outdoors, surrounded by reporters holding microphones and a television camera.

1967

Associated Press vs. Walker: Public figures cannot successfully sue the press for libel unless they can prove “highly unreasonable conduct constituting an extreme departure from the standards of investigation and reporting ordinarily adhered to by responsible publishers.”

Black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit and hat being escorted by two men wearing helmets labeled "U.S. Marshal."

1971

New York Times vs. The United States “the Pentagon Papers”: The government may not censor the press except under extraordinary circumstances.

1972

Branzburg vs. Hayes: The First Amendment does not protect reporters from testifying before a grand jury.

Black-and-white yearbook-style portrait of a young man with glasses, wearing a suit and tie.

1977

Nebraska Press Association vs. Stewart: Gag orders cannot be used as a form of prior restraint.

Newspaper front page headlined "Court Rules for Press in Nebraska Gag Case," reporting on a Supreme Court ruling against prior restraint.

1988

Hustler Magazine vs. Falwell: Public figures cannot claim damages for intentional infliction of emotional distress by publishers of parody and satire.

Newspaper article headlined "Falwell denied damages in Hustler case," reporting on the Supreme Court's ruling in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell.

The Vitality of the Free Press

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