Jefferson's lifelong fascination with Native Americans is recorded in this section of Notes. It provides a comprehensive overview of Indigenous people and their cultures as seen through white European eyes, and includes a detailed description of his excavation of a Native American burial mound.

Transcription

QUERY XI.

        A DESCRIPTION of the Indians established in that state?

Handwritten manuscript of Query 11 of Notes on the State of Virginia
Notes on the State of Virginia, Query 11. Courtesy of the Coolidge Collection of Thomas Jefferson Manuscripts at the Massachusetts Historical Society.

When the first effectual settlement of our colony was made, which was in 1607, the country from the sea-coast to the mountains, and from Patowmac to the most southern waters of James river, was occupied by upwards of forty different tribes of Indians. Of these the Powhatans, the Mannahoacs, and Monacans, were the most powerful. Those between the sea-coast and falls of the rivers, were in amity with one another, and attached to the Powhatans as their link of union. Those between the falls of the rivers and the mountains, were divided into two confederacies; the tribes inhabiting the head waters of Patowmac and Rappahanoc being attached to the Mannahoacs; and those on the upper parts of James river to the Monacans. But the Monacans and their friends were in amity with the Mannahoacs and their friends, and waged joint and perpetual war against the Powhatans. We are told that the Powhatans, Mannahoacs,andMonacans, spoke languages so radically different, that interpreters were necessary when they transacted business. Hence we may conjecture, that this was not the case between all the tribes, and probably that each spoke the language of the nation to which it was attached; which we know to have been the case in many particular instances. Very possibly there may have been anciently three different stocks, each of which multiplying in a long course of time, had separated into so many little societies. This practice results from the circumstance of their having never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of government. Their only controuls are their manners, and that moral sense of right and wrong, which, like the sense of tasting and feeling, in every man makes a part of his nature. An offence against these is punished by contempt, by exclusion from society, or, where the case is serious, as that of murder, by the individuals whom it concerns. Imperfect as this species of coercion may seem, crimes are very rare among them; insomuch that were it made a question, whether no law, as among the savage Americans, or too much law, as among the civilized Europeans, submits man to the greatest evil, one who has seen both conditions of existence would pronounce it to be the last: and that the sheep are happier of themselves, than under care of the wolves. It will be said, that great societies cannot exist without government. The savages therefore break them into small ones.

The territories of the Powhatan confederacy, South of the Patowmac, comprehended about 8000 square miles, 30 tribes, and 2400 warriors. Capt. Smith tells us, that within 60 miles of James town were 5000 people, of whom 1500 were warriors. From this we find the proportion of their warriors to their whole inhabitants, was as 3 to 10. The Powhatan confederacy then would consist of about 8000 inhabitants, which was one for every square mile; being about the twentieth part of our present population in the same territory, and the hundredth of that of the British islands.

Besides these, were the Nottoways, living on Nottoway river, the Meherrins and Tuteloes on Meherrin river, who were connected with the Indians of Carolina, probably with the Chowanocs.

 

  NORTH.  
WEST.   MANNAHOACS. POWHATANS.   EAST.
  TRIBES. COUNTRY. CHIEF TOWN. WARRIORS. TRIBES. COUNTRY. CHIEF TOWN. WARRIORS.  
1607 1669 1607 1669
Between PATOWMAC and RAPPAHANOC.           Tauxenents Fairfax About General Washington's 40    
Whonkenties Fauquier       Patówomekes Stafford. King George Patowmac creek 200    
          Cuttatawomans King George About Lamb creek 20 60 By the name of Matchotics. U. Matchodie. Nanzaticos. Nanzatico. Appamatox Matox.
Tegninaties Culpeper       Pissasecs King Geo. Richmond Above Leeds town
          Onaumanients Westmoreland Nomony river 100    
Ontponies Orange       Rappahànocs Richmond county. Rappahanoc creek 100 30  
          Moràughtacunds Lancaster. Richmond Moratico river 80 40 by the name of Totuskeys
Tauxitanians Fauquier       Secacaonies Northumberland Coan river 30    
Hassinungaes Culpeper       Wighcocòmicoes Northumberland Wicocomico river 130 70  
          Cuttatawomans Lancaster Corotoman 30    
Between RAPPAHANOC and YORK.           Nantaughtacunds Essex. Caroline Port tobacco creek 150 60  
Stegarakies Orange       Màttapomènts Mattapony river - - - - - 30 20  
Shackakonies Spotsylvania       Pamùnkies King William Romuncock 300 50  
Manahoacs Stafford. Spotsylvania       Wèrowocòmicos Gloucester About Rosewell 40    
          Payànkatanks Piankatank river Turk's Ferry. Grimesby 55    
Between YORK and JAMES. MONACANS. Youghtanunds Pamunkey river - - - - - 60    
Chickahòminies Chickahominy river Orapaks 250 60  
          Powhatàns Henrico Powhatan. Mayo's 40 10  
Monacans James R. above the falls Fork of James R.   30 Arrowhàtocs Henrico Arrohatocs 30    
          Wèanous Charles city Weynoke 100 15  
          Paspahèghes Charles city. James city Sandy point 40    
Monasiccapanoes Louisa. Fluvanna       Chískiacs York Chiskiac 45 15  
          Kecoughtáns Elizabeth city Roscows 20    
Between JAMES and CAROLINA.           Appamàttocs Chesterfield Bermuda hundred 60 50 1669
Monahassanoes Bedford. Buckingham       Quiocohanoes Surry About Upper Chipoak 25 3 Pohics Nottoways
Massinacaes Cumberland       Wàrrasqeaks Isle of Wight Warrasqueac     Meherrics 90
Mohemenchoes Powhatan       Nasamònds Nansamond About the mouth of West. branch 200 45 Tuteloes 50
          Chèsapeaks Princess Anne About Lynhaven river 100    
EASTERN SHORE.           Accohanocs Accom. Northampton Accohanoc river 40    
          Accomàcks Northampton About Cheriton's 80    
  SOUTH.  
 

The preceding table contains a slate of these several tribes, according to their confederacies and geographical situation, with their numbers when we first became acquainted with them, where these numbers are known. The numbers of some of them are again slated as they were in the year 1669, when an attempt was made by the assembly to enumerate them. Probably the enumeration is imperfect, and in some measure conjectural, and that a further search into the records would furnish many more particulars. What would be the melancholy sequel of their history, may however be augured from the census of 1669; by which we discover that the tribes therein enumerated were, in the space of 62 years, reduced to about one-third of their former numbers. Spirituous liquors, the small-pox, war, and an abridgment of territory, to a people who lived principally on the spontaneous productions of nature, had committed terrible havock among them, which generation, under the obstacles opposed to it among them, was not likely to make good. That the lands of this country were taken from them by conquest, is not so general a truth as is supposed. I find in our historians and records, repeated proofs of purchase, which cover a considerable part of the lower country; and many more would doubtless be found on further search. The upper country we know has been acquired altogether by purchases made in the most unexceptionable form.

Westward of all these tribes, beyond the mountains, and extending to the great lakes, were the Massawomecs, a most powerful confederacy, who harrassed unremittingly the Powhatans and Manahoacs. These were probably the ancestors of the tribes known at present by the name of the Six Nations.

Very little can now be discovered of the subsequent history of these tribes severally. The Chickahominies removed, about the year 1661, to Mattapony river. Their chief, with one from each of the tribes of the Pamunkies and Mattaponies, attended the treaty of Albany in 1685. This seems to have been the last chapter in their history. They retained however their separate name so late as 1705, and were at length blended with the Pamunkies and Mattaponies, and exist at present only under their names. There remain of the Mattaponies three or four men only, and they have more negro than Indian blood in them. They have lost their language, have reduced themselves, by voluntary sales, to about fifty acres of land, which lie on the river of their own name, and have, from time to time, been joining the Pamunkies, from whom they are distant but 10 miles. The Pamunkies are reduced to about 10 or 12 men, tolerably pure from mixture with other colours. The older ones among them preserve their language in a small degree, which are the last vestiges on earth, as far as we know, of the Powhatan language. They have about 300 acres of very fertile land, on Pamunkey river, so encompassed by water that a gate shuts in the whole. Of the Nottoways, not a male is left. A few women constitute the remains of that tribe. They are seated on Nottoway river, in Southampton county, on very fertile lands. At a very early period, certain lands were marked out and appropriated to these tribes, and were kept from encroachment by the authority of the laws. They have usually had trustees appointed, whose duty was to watch over their interests, and guard them from insult and injury.

 The Monacans and their friends, better known latterly by the name of Tuscaroras, were probably connected with the Massawomecs, or Five Nations. For though we are* told their languages were so different that the intervention of interpreters was necessary between them, yet do we also † learn that the Erigas, a nation formerly inhabiting on the Ohio, were of the same original stock with the Five Nations, and that they partook also of the Tuscarora language.

        * Smith.

        † Evans.

Their dialects might, by long separation, have become so unlike as to be unintelligible to one another. We know that in 1712, the Five Nations received the Tuscaroras into their confederacy, and made them the Sixth Nation. They received the Meherrins and Tuteloes also into their protection and it is most probable, that the remains of many other of the tribes, of whom we find no particular account, retired westwardly in like manner, and were incorporated with one or other of the western tribes. (5)

I know of no such thing existing as an Indian monument: for I would not honour with that name arrow points, stone hatchets, stone pipes, and half-shapen images. Of labour on the large scale, I think there is no remain as respectable as would be a common ditch for the draining of lands: unless indeed it be the Barrows, of which many are to be found all over this country. These are of different sizes, some of them constructed of earth, and some of loose stones. That they were repositories of the dead, has been obvious to all: but on what particular occasion constructed, was matter of doubt. Some have thought they covered the bones of those who have fallen in battles fought on the spot of interment. Some ascribed them to the custom, said to prevail among the Indians, of collecting, at certain periods, the bones of all their dead, wheresoever deposited at the time of death. Others again supposed them the general sepulchres for towns, conjectured to have been on or near these grounds; and this opinion was supported by the quality of the lands in which they are found, (those constructed of earth being generally in the softest and most fertile meadow-grounds on river sides) and by a tradition, said to be handed down from the aboriginal Indians, that, when they settled in a town, the first person who died was placed erect, and earth put about him, so as to cover and support him; that, when another died, a narrow passage was dug to the first, the second reclined against him, and the cover of earth replaced, and so on. There being one of these in my neighbourhood, I wished to satisfy myself whether any, and which of these opinions were just. For this purpose I determined to open and examine it thoroughly. It was situated on the low grounds of the Rivanna, about two miles above its principal fork, and opposite to some hills, on which had been an Indian town. It was of a spheroidical form, of about 40 feet diameter at the base, and had been of about twelve feet altitude, though now reduced by the plough to seven and a half, having been under cultivation about a dozen years. Before this it was covered with trees of 12 inches diameter, and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width, from whence the earth had been taken of which the hillock was formed. I first dug superficially in several parts of it, and came to collections of human bones, at different depths, from six inches to three feet below the surface. These were lying in the utmost confusion, some vertical, some oblique, some horizontal, and directed to every point of the compass, entangled, and held together in clusters by the earth. Bones of the most distant parts were found together, as, for instance, the small bones of the foot in the hollow of a scull, many sculls would sometimes be in contact, lying on the face, on the side, on the back, top or bottom, so as, on the whole, to give the idea of bones emptied promiscuously from a bag or basket, and covered over with earth, without any attention to their order. The bones of which the greatest numbers remained, were sculls, jaw-bones, teeth, the bones of the arms, thighs, legs, feet, and hands. A few ribs remained, some vertebræ of the neck and spine, without their processes, and one instance only of the * bone which serves as a base to the vertebral column.

        * The os sacrum.

The sculls were so tender, that they generally fell to pieces on being touched. The other bones were stronger. There were some teeth which were judged to be smaller than those of an adult; a scull, which, on a slight view, appeared to be that of an infant, but it fell to pieces on being taken out, so as to prevent satisfactory examination; a rib, and a fragment of the under-jaw of a person about half grown; another rib of an infant; and part of the jaw of a child, which had not yet cut its teeth. This last furnishing the most decisive proof of the burial of children here, I was particular in my attention to it. It was part of the right half of the under jaw. The processes, by which it was articulated to the temporal bones, were entire; and the bone itself firm to where it had been broken off, which, as nearly as I could judge, was about the place of the eye-tooth. Its upper edge, wherein would have been the sockets of the teeth, was perfectly smooth. Measuring it with that of an adult, by placing their hinder processes together, its broken end extended to the penultimate grinder of the adult. This bone was white, all the others of a sand colour. The bones of infants being soft, they probably decay sooner, which might be the cause so few were found here. I proceeded then to make a perpendicular cut through the body of the barrow, that I might examine its internal structure. This passed about three feet from its center, was opened to the former surface of the earth, and was wide enough for a man to walk through and examine its sides. At the bottom, that is, on the level of the circumjacent plain, I found bones; above these a few stones, brought from a cliff a quarter of a mile off, and from the river one-eighth of a mile off; then a large interval of earth, then a stratum of bones, and so on. At one end of the section were four strata of bones plainly distinguishable; at the other, three; the strata in one part not ranging with those in another. The bones nearst the surface were least decayed. No holes were discovered in any of them, as if made with bullets, arrows, or other weapons. I conjectured that in this barrow might have been a thousand skeletons. Every one will readily seize the circumstances above related, which militate against the opinion, that it covered the bones only of persons fallen in battle; and against the tradition also, which would make it the common sepulchre of a town, in which the bodies were placed upright, and touching each other. Appearances certainly indicate that it has derived both origin and growth from the accustomary collection of bones, and deposition of them together; that the first collection had been deposited on the common surface of the earth, a few stones put over it, and then a covering of earth, that the second had been laid on this, had covered more or less of it in proportion to the number of bones, and was then also covered with earth; and so on. The following are the particular circumstances which give it this aspect. 1. The number of bones. 2. Their confused position. 3. Their being in different strata. 4. The strata in one part having no correspondence with those in another. 5. The different states of decay in these strata, which seem to indicate a difference in the time of inhumation. 6. The existence of infant bones among them.

But on whatever occasion they may have been made, they are of considerable notoriety among the Indians: for a party passing, about thirty years ago, through the part of the country where this barrow is, went through the woods directly to it, without any instructions or enquiry, and having staid about it some time, with expressions which were construed to be those of sorrow, they returned to the high road, which they had left about half a dozen miles to pay this visit, and pursued their journey. There is another barrow, much resembling this, in the low grounds of the South branch of Shenandoah, where it is crossed by the road leading from the Rockfish gap to Staunton. Both of these have, within these dozen years, been cleared of their trees and put under cultivation, are much reduced in their height, and spread in width, by the plough, and will probably disappear in time. There is another on a hill in the Blue ridge of mountains, a few miles North of Wood's gap, which is made up of small stones thrown together. This has been opened and found to contain human bones, as the others do. There are also many others in other parts of the country.

Great question has arisen from whence came those aboriginal inhabitants of America? Discoveries, long ago made, were sufficient to shew that a passage from Europe to America was always practicable, even to the imperfect navigation of ancient times. In going from Norway to Iceland, from Iceland to Groenland, from Groenland to Labrador, the first traject is the widest: and this having been practised from the earliest times of which we have any account of that part of the earth, it is not difficult to suppose that the subsequent trajects may have been sometimes passed. Again, the late discoveries of Captain Cook, coasting from Kamschatka to California, have proved that, if the two continents of Asia and America be separated at all, it is only by a narrow streight. So that from this side also, inhabitants may have passed into America: and the resemblance between the Indians of America and the eastern inhabitants of Asia, would induce us to conjecture, that the former are the descendants of the latter, or the latter of the former: excepting indeed the Eskimaux, who, from the same circumstance of resemblance, and from identity of language, must be derived from the Groenlanders, and these probably from some of the northern parts of the old continent. A knowledge of their several languages would be the most certain evidence of their derivation which could be produced. In fact, it is the best proof of the affinity of nations which ever can be referred to. How many ages have elapsed since the English, the Dutch, the Germans, the Swiss, the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes have separated from their common stock? Yet how many more must elapse before the proofs of their common origin, which exist in their several languages, will disappear? It is to be lamented then, very much to be lamented, that we have suffered so many of the Indian tribes already to extinguish, without our having previously collected and deposited in the records of literature, the general rudiments at least of the languages they spoke. Were vocabularies formed of all the languages spoken in North and South America, preserving their appellations of the most common objects in nature, of those which must be present to every nation barbarous or civilized, with the inflections of their nouns and verbs, their principles of regimen and concord, and these deposited in all the public libraries, it would furnish opportunities to those skilled in the languages of the old world to compare them with these, now, or at any future time, and hence to construct the best evidence of the derivation of this part of the human race.

But imperfect as is our knowledge of the tongues spoken in America, it suffices to discover the following remarkable fact. Arranging them under the radical ones to which they may be palpably traced, and doing the same by those of the red men of Asia, there will be found probably twenty in America, for one in Asia, of those radical lauguages, so called because, if they were ever the same, they have lost all resemblance to one another. A separation into dialects may be the work of a few ages only, but for two dialects to recede from one another till they have lost all vestiges of their common origin, must require an immense course of time; perhaps not less than many people give to the age of the earth. A greater number of those radical changes of language having taken place among the red men of America, proves them of greater antiquity than those of Asia.

I will now proceed to state the nations and numbers of the Aborigines which still exist in a respectable and independant form. And as their undefined boundaries would render it difficult to specify those only which may be within any certain limits, and it may not be unacceptable to present a more general view of them, I will reduce within the form of a Catalogue all those within, and circumjacent to, the United States, whose names and numbers have come to my notice. These are taken from four different lists, the first of which was given in the year 1759 to General Stanwix by George Croghan, deputy agent for Indian affairs under Sir William Johnson; the second was drawn up by a French trader of considerable note, resident among the Indians many years, and annexed to Colonel Bouquet's printed account of his expedition in 1764. The third was made out by Captain Hutchins, who visited most of the tribes, by order, for the purpose of learning their numbers in 1768. And the fourth by John Dodge, an Indian trader, in 1779, except the numbers marked*, which are from other information.

  TRIBES. Croghan. 1759. Bouquet. 1764. Hutchins. 1768. Where they reside.
Northward and Westward of the United States. Oswegatchies 100 At Swagatchy, on the river St. Laurence.
Connasedagoes 300 Near Montreal.
Cohunnewagoes 200
Orondocs 100 Near Trois Rivieres.
Abenakies 350 150 Near Trois Rivieres.
Little Algonkins 100 Near Trois Rivieres.
Michmacs 700 River St. Laurence.
Amelistes 550 River St. Laurence.
Chalas 130 River St. Laurence.
Nipissins 400 Towards the heads of the Ottawas river.
Algonquins 300 Towards the heads of the Ottawas river.
Round heads 2500 Riviere aux Tetes boules on the E. side of Lake Superior.
Messasagues 2000 Lakes Huron and Superior.
Christinaux. Kris 3000 Lake Christinaux.
Assinaboes 1500 Lake Assinaboes.
Blancs, or Barbus 1500  
Sioux of the Meadows 10,000 2500 10,000 On the heads of the Missisipi & westward of that river.
Sioux of the Woods 1800
Sioux
Ajoues 1100 North of the Padoucas.
Panis. White 2000 South of the Missouri.
Panis. Freckled   1700   South of the Missouri.
Padoucas 500 South of the Missouri.
Grandes caux 1000  
Canses 1600 South of the Missouri.
Osages 600 South of the Missouri.
Missouris 400 3000 On the river Missouri.
Arkanzas 2000 On the river Arkanzas.
Caouitas 700 East of the Allbamous.

 

  TRIBES. Croghan. 1759. Bouquet. 1764. Hutchins. 1768. Dodge. 1779. Where they reside.
Within the Limits of the United States. Mohocks 160 100 Mohocks river.
Onèidas 300 400 East side of Oneida Lake and head branches of Susquehanna.
Tuscaròras 200 Between the Oneidas and Onondagoes.
Onondàgoes 1550 260 230 Near Onondago L.
Cayùgas 200 220 On the Cayuga Lake near the N. branch of Susquehanna.
Sènecas 1000 650 On the waters of Susquehanna, of Ontario, and the heads of the Ohio.
Aughquàgahs 150 East branch of Susquehanna, and on Aughquagah.
Nànticocs 100 Utsanango, Chaghtnet, and Owegy, on the East branch of Susquehanna.
Mohìccons 100 In the same parts.
Conòies 30 In the same parts.
Sapòonies 30 At Diahago and other villages up the N. branch of Susquehanna.
Mùnsies 150 *150 At Diahago and other villages up the N. branch of Susquehanna.
Delawares, or Linnelinopies 150 *500 At Diahago and other villages up the N. branch of Susquehanna.
Delawares, or Linnelinopies 600 600 600 Between Ohio and Lake Erie and the branches of Beaver creek, Cayahoga and Muskingum.
Shàwanees 400 500 300 300 Sioto and the branches of Muskingum.
Mìngoes 60 On a branch of Sioto.

 

  TRIBES. Croghan. 1759. Bouquet. 1764. Hutchins. 1768. Dodge. 1779. Where they reside.
Within the Limits of the United States Mohìccons 300 *60  
Cohunnewagos Near Sandusky.
Wyandots 300 300 180  
Wyandots   250 Near fort St. Joseph's and Detroit.
Twightwees 300 250 Miami river near fort Miami.
Miamis 350 300 Miami river, about fort St. Joseph.
Ouiàtonons 200 400 300 *300 On the banks of the Wabash, near fort Ouiatonon.
Piànkishas 300 250 300 *400 On the banks of the Wabash, near fort Ouiatonon.
Shàkies 200 On the banks of the Wabash, near fort Ouiatonon.
Kaskaskias 600 300 Near Kaskaskia.
Illinois 400 300 Near Cahokia. Query, If not the same with the Mitchigamis?
Piorias 800 On the Illinois river, called Pianrias, but supposed to mean Piorias.
Pouteòtamies 350 300 450 Near St. Joseph's and fort Detroit.
Ottàwas 550 *300 Near St. Joseph's and fort Detroit.
Chippawas 200 On Saguinam bay of lake Huron.
Ottawas On Saguinam bay of lake Huron.
Chippawas 400 Near Michillimackinac.
Ottawas 2000 5900 250 5450 Near Michillimackinac.
Chippawas     400   Near fort St. Mary's on lake Superior.
Chippawas Several other villages along the banks of lake Superior. Numbers unknown.
Chippawas Near Puans bay on lake Michigan.
Shakies 200 400 550 Near Puans bay on lake Michigan.
Mynonàmies Near Puans bay on lake Michigan.

        

  TRIBES. Croghan. 1759. Bouquet. 1764. Hutchins. 1768. Dodge. 1779. Where they reside.
Within the Limits of the United States. Ouisconsings 550 Cuisconsing river.
Kickapous 600 300 250 On lake Michigan, and between that and the Missisipi.
Otogamies. Foxes
Màscoutens 500  
Miscòthins 4000
Outimacs
Musquakies 200 250 250
Sioux. Eastern 500 On the eastern heads of the Missisipi, and the islands of lake Superior.
      Galphin. 1768.    
Cherokees 1500 2500 3000 Western parts of North Carolina.
Chickasaws 750 500 Western parts of Georgia.
Catawbas 150 On the Catawba river in South Carolina.
Chacktaws 2000 4500 6000 Western parts of Georgia.
Upper Creeks 3000 Western parts of Georgia.
Lower Creeks 1180 Western parts of Georgia.
Natchez 150  
Alibamous 600 Alibama river, in the western parts of Georgia.

The following tribes are also mentioned:       

Croghan's catalo. Lezar 400 From the mouth of Ohio to the mouth of Wabash.
Webings 200 On the Missisipi below the Shakies.
Ousasoys Grand Tuc. 4000 On White creek, a branch of the Missisipi.
Linways 1000 On the Missisipi.
Bouquet's. Les Puans 700 Near Puans bay.
Folle avoine 350 Near Puans bay.
Ouanakina 300 Conjectured to be tribes of the Creeks.
Chiakanessou 350
Machecous 800
Souikilas 200
Dodge's. Mineamis 2000 North-west of lake Michigan, to the heads of Missisipi, and up to lake Superior.
Piankishas 800 On and near the Wabash, towards the Illinois.
Mascoutins
Vermillions

But, apprehending these might be different appellations for some of the tribes already enumerated, I have not inserted them in the table, but state them separately as worthy of further inquiry. The variations observable in numbering the same tribe may sometimes be ascribed to imperfect information, and sometimes to a greater or less comprehension of settlements under the same name. 


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